Language Birth: Pidgin and Creole Languages
Pidgins and creoles are typically referred to
as contact languages because they arise from contact
between two or more existing languages.
More
precisely, such languages develop in areas where speakers with
different native languages who do not speak and understand each
others' languages have contact to each other. In specific social situations
there is a fundamental necessity for communicationbetween these
speech communities (e.g. trade). We say that their languages are complementarily
distributed. In such situations a common means of communication, i.e. a
common language, is needed.
The
result is the development of a language that has not existed before: a pidgin
or jargon respectively. This new language functions as a lingua franca for
its speakers: a language which is used as a means of communication between
speakers who do not share a native language. Pidgin languages do not have
native speakers.
The
development of pidgins and creoles is not exclusively but closely connected
to European colonialist expansion and its accompanying slave
trade. This is the reason why we find so many pidgins (and creoles) located
along former trade routes.
One of the central characteristics of pidgins and creoles is their highly
simplified grammatical structure compared to the structures of their
source – or input – languages. Though grammatically highly simplified, they are
from a linguistic standpoint not inferior language varieties but separate
languages on their own fulfilling the communicative purposes of their speakers.
Outside linguistics, the general attitude towards these languages is
nevertheless often rather negative even among their speakers. Pidgins often
suffer from a lack of prestige.
Pidgins
Here are the important defining features of a pidgin language:
- A
Pidgin is a language variety that arises from contact between two or more
languages with complementary distribution.
- In the
context of European colonialist expansion these languages were the
languages of the European colonizers and the non-European indigenous
language(s) of those being ‘colonized’ around the Atlantic and in the
Pacific and Indian Oceans, e.g. West-African languages.
- Languages
involved in the formation of pidgins and creoles are also referred to
as superstrate and substrate. The terms are
connected to the extent of socio-political power ascribed to the groups of
speakers in a language contact situation. The European colonizers had
socio-political power and their language, as the dominant language in
contact situations, constitutes the superstrate. The indigenous
non-European languages are the substrate which is the less dominant
language in a contact situation. The speakers of the substrate languages
were regarded socially inferior to the European colonizers. They had
little or no socio-political power.
- The
process in which a pidgin develops is referred to as pidginization.
- A
pidgin has no native speakers.
- Pidgins
usually draw most of their vocabulary from one language, the lexifier.
The lexifier is usually the language of the European colonizer, e.g.
English, Spanish, French or Dutch (= the superstrate).
- Although
they are lexically and grammatically influenced by their input languages,
pidgins are not mutually intelligible with these languages.
- Pidgins
have grammars which are simplified and reduced in
comparison with the grammars of their input languages. Mark Sebba (1997)
speaks of typical design features characterizing pidgin (and creole)
grammars.
Design Features of Pidgin Grammars
Compared
to their source languages, pidgins show a characteristic simplification
of linguistic structure that concerns all aspects of grammar: lexicon,
phonology, syntax, semantics, morphology. Accordingly,
the grammars of pidgins are characteristically less complex than the grammars
of their source languages.
Mark Sebba (1997) describes this reduced structural system by means
of four principles or design features ascribed
to pidgin grammars. Some are also valid for creoles:
(1)
The syntactic features of a pidgin reveal a lack of surface grammatical
complexity
(2) Pidgins are characterized by a lack of morphological complexity
(3) Pidgins show a general preference for semantic transparency
(4) Pidgins show a characteristic reduction in vocabulary
The
design features are shared by pidgins (and creoles) worldwide. Usually, contact
languages show structural similarities, even though they are geographically widely
separated and are based on different lexifier languages which themselves do not
share the structural features that are common to pidgins and creoles.
Stages of Pidgin Development
Once
a pidgin has come into existence it may develop further with respect to its
grammatical structure and range of communicative functions. These developments
depend on the communicative needs of the pidgin's speakers. Here, pidgins may
reveal a developmental continuum. There are particular
stages of pidgin development which are universal for all pidgins. The
stages are characterized by differing degrees of stability and complexity in
the pidgin's grammar and in the communicative functions the pidgin serves.
The developmental stages of a pidgin:
Jargon:
- is the
most basic and least structured phase in the development of a pidgin. The
jargon characteristically lacks stable linguistic norms of usage. It is
not clearly determined what is grammatically and lexically part of the
jargon. Thus, the jargon stage is characterized by high
grammatical and lexical instability, or a high degree of grammatical
and lexical variation among the speakers of the jargon. This variation is
based on the influence of the speakers' native languages on the structure
of the jargon.
- Has
the most limited range of social functions (e.g.
restriction to trade).
-
Example: Russenorsk
was used between Russian sailors and Norwegian fishermen for the purpose
of trade from the eighteenth until the early twentieth century.
Tertiary Hybridization:
-
is a
developmental process which is seen as a significant stage in the
formation of a pidgin with stable linguistic norms of usage. Tertiary
Hybridization is based on the assumption that a 'proper' or stable pidgin
cannot develop unless the influence of the
lexifier has
disappeared from the contact situation. This happens as soon as the
jargon begins to be used exclusively between groups of speakers who are
not speakers of the
lexifier. The
jargon can now develop independent of the lexifier's influence and will in
due course be turned into a stable pidgin. However, as long as the
lexifier is present in the contact situation and spoken by native
speakers, it is assumed that it will serve as the target language. The
resulting contact language will rather be a simplified version of the
lexifier. The
lexifier will
serve as the target language because it is the superstrate language.
- Tertiary
hybridization refers to the use of the jargon as the primary means
of communication between groups of speakers who do not speak the
original target language. In such a situation the jargon (or secondary
hybrid) will stabilize and thus develop into a stable pidgin,
the tertiary hybrid.
- The
jargon, in this connection, is the result of secondary hybridization, a
term which also describes the interbreeding of species.
Thus, the jargon – or secondary hybrid – emerges during the interbreeding
of, for example, a European language – the superstrate – with an
indigenous language – the substrate. When this contact language is adopted
by a third group of speakers this process is referred to as tertiary
hybridization. The tertiary hybrid, or the (stable) pidgin,
has developed.
Stable pidgin (tertiary hybrid):
- A
stable pidgin is characterized by a reduction of linguistic
variability. It has stable or established linguistic norms of
usage in the fields of grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary.
These norms are often independent and distinct from the hybrid's source
languages.
- A
tertiary hybrid is characterized by an overall structural simplicity
compared to its source languages.
- Its use
is restricted to specific communicative functions.
It
is questionable whether tertiary hybridization or simply the establishment of
independent linguistic norms of usage which is of major importance for the
emergence of a stable pidgin.
Extended / expanded pidgin:
- In the
expansion phase the range of communicative functions increases for which
the pidgin is used.
- The
expansion of communicative functions is accompanied by an overall
structural elaboration of the pidgin in both vocabulary and
grammar. Its initial structural simplicity becomes much more complex in
the process. At any of these developmental stages
creolization of
the pidgin may occur as soon as it acquires native speakers.
Creoles
A
creole is usually defined both with reference to and in contrast to pidgins.
Here are the important defining features of a creole language:
- In
contrast to pidgins which have no native speakers creoles have native
speakers: A child born into a pidgin-speaking community will acquire
this pidgin as a first language. Thus, the pidgin will be turned into a
creole by the process of nativization.
- Creoles
always develop out of a pidgin.
- The
process whereby a creole develops and a pidgin acquires native speakers is
called creolization.
- Creolization
may occur at any of the developmental stages of a pidgin. Depending on the
developmental stage at which creolization starts to happen, there is
either gradual creolization or abrupt
creolization.
- Gradual
creolization happens in the extended / expanded pidgin stage. In other
words, creolization starts at a stage where the pidgin is highly
developed. It is already characterized by established linguistic norms of
usage.
- Abrupt creolization
describes the process before a stable pidgin could
emerge. Here, the process of creolization takes place at an early
developmental stage of the pidgin. At this point, it is still
characterized by a lack of stable linguistic norms of usage.
Derek Bickerton’s (1981) Language Bioprogram
Hypothesis is a theory of genesis referring specifically to cases of
abrupt creolization.
- Creole-speaking
communities may exhibit a Post-Creole continuum.
The Post-Creole Continuum
- Creolization
of a prior pidgin may not be the end of linguistic development. In
specific circumstances, a creole can decreolize and a
so-called 'Post-Creole continuum' develops within a creole-speaking
community:
-
A
Post-Creole continuum may come into existence when a creole
remains in contact with its
lexifier. In
such cases a continuum of language varieties (or lects) develops which mix
creole and lexifier. Usually, those lects differ slightly from each other.
These varieties are termed basilect, mesolect, and acrolect:
The
term Post-Creole continuum thus describes a speech continuum - the spectrum
of linguistic varieties between a creole and a standard form of the lexifier.
This spectrum usually exists in creole-speaking communities in which the
lexifier language is still present and continues to have linguistic influence.
The
development of a Post-Creole speech continuum in a creole-speaking community
reflects decreolization: In situations where a creole remains in
contact with its lexifier, the creole may become structurally more similar to
the lexifier whose continued presence and prestige exerts social pressure on
the speakers of the (basilect) creole. Decreolization describes
the linguistic process whereby creole speakers modify the grammar of
the basilect in the direction of the acrolectal grammar.
Phonological Simplicity
- Pidgins
have a comparatively high degree of phonological simplicity:
(a)
Pidgins avoid difficult sounds, i.e. those sounds that are
phonologically highly marked.
(b)
Pidgins show a simple syllable structure (consonant-vowel).
(c)
Pidgins have a preference for short words, i.e. a small number of
syllables per word.
(d)
In pidgins tone has no phonemic status, i.e. tone is generally not
used to distinguish words.
(Information
taken and adapted from Sebba, 1997)
Reduction in Vocabulary
(a) Pidgins have an overall small stock of words
- The
number of compounds, prepositions and postpositions is reduced in the
lexicons of pidgins. Frequently, there are so-called all-purpose
prepositions which shape the lexicon of a pidgin language:
-
Tok
Pisin makes use of the preposition 'long' which can be
translated into English as 'in, on, at' etc.
ol meri long kantri
all
woman along country
'all
women in the country'
long wanpela woksop long Alotau
along
one-fellow workshop along Alotau
'in
a workshop at Alotau'
Bung i bin stat long Mande
Meeting
he been start along Monday
'The
meeting began on Monday'
-
West
African Pidgin English features the preposition 'for'
indicating location which means 'in, at, on, to' etc.
Wetin you dey find for home?
'What
are you finding at home?'
for Argentina
in Argentina
Multifunctionality
of words helps to compensate for the small size of a pidgin lexicon.
Multifunctionality means that the same lexical item is used or functions
in several syntactic categories. For instance, in Tok Pisin the
word kaikai can denote either 'food' or 'to eat'.
There
are similar cases in English, like a run (N) versus to
run (V) etc.
In
other cases, the meaning of a word is extended so that it can cover several
concepts. In Tok Pisin, the word 'lek' can mean 'leg', 'foot', 'hind leg' or 'footprint'.
Likewise, nil covers the semantic range of the English 'nail',
'needle', 'thorn', 'syringe' or 'bodkin'.
The Location of Pidgins and Creoles Around the World
Pidgins and creoles: what are they named after?
Pidgins
and creoles have usually been named after
(1)
their lexifier language, i.e. the language that provides most
of the vocabulary. This is often the language of a European colonizer such as
English or Spanish. Accordingly, when we speak of English-based pidgins and
creoles, we mean all those contact languages whose lexifier language is
English. Likewise, there are for instance Spanish-based, French-based or
Dutch-based pidgins and creoles.
(2)
The names for pidgins and creoles usually denote their geographical
location, i.e. the place where they are spoken.
Thus,
we find such names as Chinese Pidgin English, Hawaiian Creole English or West
African Pidgin English.
Theories of Genesis
- Theories
of genesis are concerned with the origins of both pidgins and
creoles, hence the name. The main focus lies on the origin of pidgins
although creoles are thought to be related to pidgins. The process
of creolization is assumed to involve the nativization of an
existing pidgin. However, relevant theories of genesis generally refer to
both types of contact languages.
- A
theory exclusively concerned with creole genesis is Derek
Bickerton’s Language Bioprogram Hypothesis (LBH)(1981).
- Different
theories of genesis have been proposed in order to account for the
significant structural similarities between pidgins and creoles with
different lexifiers and wide geographical separation in terms of
their origins.
- In
short: theories of genesis are theories about the origins of pidgin and
creole languages.
- Theories
of genesis can be broadly classified into:
(1) Monogenetic Theories
(2) Polygenetic Theories
(3) Universalist Theories
(4) Substrate Theories
Monogenetic Theories (single-origin theories)
- Monogenetic
theories assume monogenesis, hence the name. It is argued that there is a
single origin of European-based pidgins and creoles.
Monogenesis and Relexification
- Monogenetic
approaches explain the structural similarities between
most or all European-based pidgins (and creoles) with a common origin.
- According
to monogenetic theories, all pidgins have a common origin, the proto-pidgin.
Thus, pidgins are genetically related and descent from a common ancestor.
- A
fifteenth century Portuguese-based pidgin in West Africa (WAPP) has
been established as the proto-pidgin. It functions similar to a late
version of the medieval Mediterranean Lingua Franca called Sabir.
- According
to the theory of monogenesis, WAPP (West African Pidgin
Portuguese) was carried around the world in the course of European
colonization and, as a consequence, gave rise to pidgins (and
later creoles) in many places. These pidgins and creoles all retained
particular structural features including lexical remnants of the
Portuguese-based proto-pidgin.
- An
important component of the monogenesis theory is relexification.
Relexification explains the lexical differences between pidgins and
creoles, as they are historically related and derive from a common origin
in WAPP.
- The
term 'relexification' means the total or near-total replacement of the
vocabulary of a particular language by vocabulary from another language.
- Thus,
if relexification is assumed, when WAPP was carried around the world and
its speakers came into contact with different groups of European
colonizers – English, Spanish, Dutch and French - it was adopted by these
colonizers by a process of relexification. Thus, WAPP was relexified and
influenced by the particular European colonizer’s language with which it
was in contact. It gave rise to different European-based pidgins and
creoles over time.
- While
the lexicon changed and Portuguese words were replaced by words from other
European colonizers' languages, the basic grammatical structure of WAPP
was retained. According to the monogenesis theory, this is the reason for
the structural similarities between pidgins and creoles which
have different lexifier languages.
Disadvantage of the monogenesis theory:
- The
theory of monogenesis does not consider the development of all pidgins and
creoles worldwide. It only focuses on European-based pidgins
and creoles that originated from WAPP.
- However,
there are pidgins and creoles which developed without European connections
(e.g. several African or Asian pidgins). These contact languages also show
basic structural similarities.
- Consequently,
although monogenesis assumes relexification, and although this may be an
appropriate explanation for all European-based pidgins and creoles,
it cannot account for the structural similarities between pidgins
and creoles worldwide.
- A more
general theory of genesis, thus, should cover all cases of pidginization.
Such a theory then must be a polygenetic one which
assumes multiple independent origins for the contact languages of the
world.
Polygenetic Theories (multiple-origin theories)
- Polygenetic
theories contrast with the monogenesis theories which propose a common
origin for European-based pidgins and creoles.
- Polygenetic
theories address all cases of pidginization: they are not
restricted to European-based pidgins and creoles but account for the
structural similarities between pidgins and creoles worldwide.
- According
to polygenetic theories, the pidgins and creoles of the world did not
evolve from a common ancestor or proto-pidgin but rather developed
separately from one another with different starting points. Structural
similarities are thus the result of parallel but independent developments
of the world’s pidgins and creoles.
- In this
connection, universalist theories and the influence
of substrate languages are seen as central explanatory
factors or mechanisms involved in the development of the structural
similarities of both pidgins and creoles.
(Information
adapted from Sebba 1997)
Universalist Theories
- Universalist
Theory is one central factor or mechanism involved in the explanation of
the striking structural similarities of pidgin and creole languages.
- Universalist
theories aim to explain structural similarities among the world’s pidgins
and creoles on the basis of the assumption that all humans are
characterized by an innate ability to simplify language.
Hence, structural similarities are the result of universal strategies for
language simplification. They are applied in pidginization processes – the
active creation of a pidgin by different speakers with different native
languages. These strategies are universal because they are shared by all
humans worldwide.
- One
particular universalist theory is the foreigner talk theory.
Foreigner talk describes a specific style of speech applied by native
speakers of a language when addressing foreigners in typical speech
situations. For instance, the foreigner asks for directions and the native
speaker assumes that the foreigner is not able to understand the native
speaker correctly when using his or her usual, prestigious speech variety.
In such cases, native speakers might decide to use foreigner talk in order
to make themselves understandable: a modified, structurally
(highly) simplified variety of a language. The variety is used by
native speakers for communication with foreigners.
- Summing
up, universalist theories assume that pidgins are created on the
basis of a simplified input, like in foreigner talk. We have
established that the grammars of the world’s pidgins are similar. This
(shared) structural simplification is the result of the fact that the
learners of a pidgin are exposed to a structurally simplified version – a
foreigner talk version - of the lexifier language. The lexifier
language is regarded as the target language in the language learning
process.
- A
universalist approach to creole genesis is Derek Bickerton's Language
Bioprogram Hypothesis (LBH) (1981).
